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• • 18k Downloads • Abstract Although there are various indications and claims that jellyfish (i.e., scyphozoans, cubozoans, most hydrozoans, ctenophores, and salps) have been increasing at a global scale in recent decades, a rigorous demonstration of this has never been presented. Because this is mainly due to scarcity of quantitative time series of jellyfish abundance from scientific surveys, we attempt to complement such data with non-conventional information from other sources. This was accomplished using the analytical framework of fuzzy logic, which allows the combination of information with variable degrees of cardinality, reliability, and temporal and spatial coverage. Data were aggregated and analyzed at the scale of Large Marine Ecosystem (LME).

Of the 66 LMEs defined thus far that cover the world’s coastal waters and seas, trends of jellyfish abundance after 1950 (increasing, decreasing, or stable/variable) were identified for 45, with variable degrees of confidence. Of those 45 LMEs, the majority (28 or 62%) showed increasing trends. These changes are discussed in the context of possible sources of bias and uncertainty, along with previously proposed hypotheses to explain increases in jellyfish.

Jellyfish are a conspicuous, but relatively little studied component of marine ecosystems, whose populations fluctuate widely with ocean climate and also experience sudden outbursts known as “blooms,” followed by population crashes (Purcell, ). There are also recent suggestions that jellyfish may be synanthropic, specifically, benefiting from human interactions with the oceans, and thus may be increasing globally (Mills,; Purcell et al.,; Pauly et al.,; Richardson et al., ).

Previous global reviews of jellyfish populations (e.g., Mills,; Purcell et al.,; Chudnow, ) show evidence of numerous localized increases; however, for most ecosystems, long time series of abundance measures for jellyfish are lacking, and the perceived widespread or global increase in jellyfish still lacks a rigorous foundation. Establishing abundance trends for jellyfish is difficult due to a number of factors.

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There is a dearth of historical information on jellyfish, because they were usually damaged or not recorded when caught in routine bottom trawl or zooplankton surveys (Pugh,; Hay, ). In fact, the latter often used gear designed to exclude jellyfish from plankton samples (e.g., Heinle, ) or were based on methodologies that explicitly recommended their removal before analysis (e.g., Dovel, ). For example, a classic manual on zooplankton sampling published by UNESCO ( ) mentions jellyfish only once, i.e., “Gelatinous organisms and other animals [] will occur in the catches and these must be considered separately from the main sample.” Moreover, jellyfish are difficult to sample even when targeted (Omori & Hamner,; Pierce, ).

As a result of their neglect in routine surveys and marine samples, jellyfish were generally perceived as a bothersome and unimportant component of marine ecosystems (Pauly et al., ), which then justified their further neglect. Furthermore, despite recent advances in research and understanding of jellyfish ecology at local scales, such knowledge is rarely used to evaluate possible causes or consequences of jellyfish blooms at larger scales, or to make predictions (Purcell, ). Their peculiar life cycles, which can result in extremely high temporal and spatial variability in abundance, peaking in the form of “blooms” (Mills,; Purcell et al.,; Boero et al.,; Dawson & Hamner,; Hamner & Dawson, ), also contribute to why jellyfish tend to be understudied. All cubozoans, as well as many hydrozoans and scyphozoans have a life history consisting of a sessile polyp phase and a planktonic medusa phase. Many polyps reproduce asexually through the process of strobilation, producing multiple ephyrae which join the zooplankton community (Arai, ) and rapidly grow to become medusae (Palomares & Pauly, ). For some species, the polyps may asexually bud more polyps or form dormant cysts capable of surviving harsh environmental conditions (Arai, ).